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Case studies of a group of adult
users of a mental health team receiving riding therapy
Hannah Burgon
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to examine the psychotherapeutic
effect of riding therapy (RT) on a group of adult users of a social
services mental health team in South Devon. The benefit of Animal
Assisted Therapy (AAT) and pet ownership on health and well being is
well documented. However, whilst research has been conducted into the
benefits of hippo therapy (the employment of horse riding as a
physiotherapeutic aid) little has been undertaken on the
psychotherapeutic benefits of riding therapy. This case study sought to
explore whether the participants benefited in terms of confidence,
increased self-esteem and social/interaction skills. A further objective
was whether these benefits, if identified, were transferable into other
areas of the riders’ lives.
....The
study was conducted utilizing a case study, participant observational
methodology following the progress of 6 women with various mental health
problems receiving RT on a weekly basis. The sessions comprised of
learning to look after the horses and carrying out stable management
tasks in addition to the riding, the chief instructor aware that an
important factor of the RT was building up a relationship and trust with
the horses on the ground.
Methods
employed to record the sessions, apart from participant observation,
included interviews and questionnaires. The prime objective of the study
was for the riders’ experience of the therapy to be expressed in their
own words.
It was found
that the participants benefited in areas ranging from increased
confidence and self-concept, and that the therapy aided social
stimulation and led to transferable skills being acquired.
Keywords: Animal-assisted therapy,
equine-facilitated psychotherapy, hippotherapy, horses, riding therapy.
INTRODUCTION
Studies on the links between pet ownership and lower blood pressure
rates, together with higher survival rates of heart patients receiving
AAT have provided empirical evidence of the therapeutic benefits of
animals, (Friedmann, Katcher et al, 1983; Friedmann et al, 1980).
Psychologists Levison, (Serpell 2000) and Carson, Butcher and Coleman
(1988) found animals were powerful facilitators in psychotherapy with
both disturbed children and adults. Edney suggests that children from
families with pets have increased social competency due to the
responsibility involved in caring for them. She also reported a
reduction in violence and anti-social behaviour when animals were
introduced in a programme in a young offender's institution (Edney cited
in All, Loving and Crane 1999). AAT has been reported to be effective at
initiating social stimulation, that is, "providing opportunities for
people to engage in social interaction and to initiate social behaviours"
(Bernstein, Freidmann and Malaspina 2000).
The field of riding, or
equine-facilitated, therapy has less empirically- based research to
support it partly due to the inherent difficulties involved in
clinically measuring psychological outcomes. Riding therapy,
nevertheless, has a long history and offers unlimited potential as a
holistic therapeutic medium for a range of both physical and
psychological conditions. This can be illustrated by the success of
Riding for the Disabled, which was established in Britain following the
success of Liz Hartel at the 1952 Olympics, a rider who had returned to
riding for rehabilitation having contacted polio. Research conducted by
All, Loving and Crane (1999), Bertoti (1988), Heipertz (1977)
Henrickson (1971) Kunzle, Steinlin and Yasikoff (1994) supports this.
These authors are proving that the unique movement of the horse is ideally
suited to improving posture and trunk control with both children and
adults with cerebral palsy, and various other physical disabilities.
In the USA, where Equine Assisted Psychotherapy (EAP) is being pioneered,
initial reports of the benefits for people with a range of mental health
problems, emotional and behavioural difficulties and projects working
with inner-city youth justice programmes have been positive, (McCormick
and McCormick 1997; Rector 1994; Cushings and Williams, 1995).
The objective of this case study was to explore some of these aspects by
seeking the opinions of the 6 riders involved and giving their voices to
their experiences.
METHODS
Sample
The sample group consisted of a group of 6 adults registered with a
social services mental health team in Devon receiving RT on a weekly
basis. For the sake of confidentiality abbreviations are employed and
they are referred to as 'the riders'.
The group had been running for approx 2 months prior to the study, which
began in November 2000. The researcher followed the group’s progress
once a week for a 6-month period. The riders were all female, Caucasian
and aged between 30 and 40. Their 'conditions' ranged from depression,
to schizophrenia and other psychotic illness. Some had suffered nervous
breakdowns. L had suffered a stroke 10 years previously, which had left
her paralyzed on the left side of her body.
The sessions were held at a Riding for the Disabled Association (RDA)
stables and instructed by qualified RDA instructors, a physiotherapist
and assisted by volunteers. The horses employed had been selected for
their temperaments, sizes, ages and other various attributes. They
ranged from a large, weight-bearing shire x to smaller native ponies and
cobs.
Data and Methods
Due to the nature of the study, it being a small group, it was
necessary to employ a qualitative case study approach. A prime objective
of the study was to allow the voices of the service users to be heard
and so a number of techniques were employed to encourage this. A
participant observational approach was considered appropriate in this
case involving the researcher working alongside the instructors and
volunteers at the stables to build up a relationship with the riders.
This method "encourages researchers to immerse themselves in the
day-to-day activities of the people who they are attempting to
understand", (May 1993).
Ethics approval was gained from Exeter University and informed consent
to the study by the riders. This was achieved by firstly asking the
riders individually, then in a group setting by the instructor (without
the researcher present) and finally, formally in writing where the
process and objectives of the study was explained in detail.
Other techniques employed were questionnaires, including a pilot
questionnaire of students at the Fortune Centre of Riding Therapy in the
New Forest, and semi-structured interviews.
The nature of the study, being a small-scale, participant observational
case study, limits it to offering a description, or account, of the
process. The researcher has attempted to achieve this by striving to
capture, "its unique features", (Gomm, Hammersley and Foster 2000).
The data analysis is therefore presented utilizing the voices of the
riders, a phenomenological approach arguing that, "we can only
understand human behaviour from the view-point of the people involved",
(Payne 1997).
Due to this approach, in addition to time, space and resource
constraints, it was not originally planned to include interviews with
the instructors and volunteers apart from the chief instructor.
However, during the course of the study it emerged that the whole team
was a fundamental aspect of the therapy’s success and a selection of
interviews were therefore incorporated into the research. This involved
the original hypothesis, that the horse was the main factor in the
therapeutic process, being analyzed, as it emerged that it was a
combination between horse, teacher, group dynamics and environment that
made the therapy a success.
Description of the case study
The riders arrived each Thursday morning by taxi paid for by social
services. One rider, L, acquired her own specially adapted transport and
eventually drove herself. For the first month of attending the sessions
the riders were all arriving nearer to 10.30 when the actual riding
session begins, but all began to organize the transport to arrive at
9.30 so they had more time with the horses. Two riders, V and S who at
first used to wait outside the yard's gate smoking until the horses were
ready to ride, were soon regularly in the barn grooming and helping out
before the researcher arrived.
Although the riders were matched with particular horses at the start of
the project by the instructors according to past experience, temperament
of the horse, and size and weight, factors which all have to be taken
into consideration, they all became attached or drawn to particular
horses for different reasons. This was taken into account as the RT
sessions evolved and exploited to encourage greater self awareness, and
to aid learning experiences.
A typical day would include preparing the horses for riding by grooming,
tacking up and general stable duties such as mucking out the stables.
During this period volunteers and instructors were on hand to offer
instruction and assistance in an unthreatening and encouraging manner.
It was within these sessions that much informal therapeutic intervention
occurred with the instructors encouraging the riders to interact with
the horses, and to consider how their actions and behaviour influenced
the horses and vice versa. Other sessions included group discussions on
various horse related topics to encourage social interaction skills in
an informal environment. The mounted sessions could take place either in
the covered arena or, as favoured by the riders as they became more
skilled and confident, hacking in the local lanes. These sessions began
by teaching basic riding skills leading to more advanced exercises
dictated by the pace of the individual rider.
RESULTS
Case Reports
Over the course of the 6 month study the researcher followed the
progress of the riders in terms of their riding and stable management
skills, social interaction and confidence building, the physical
benefits they may have acquired and transferable skills to other areas
of their lives.
Each rider was interviewed individually and given questionnaires as well
as the semi-structured interviewing that took place whilst working
alongside them each session.
Their individual experiences are recorded as follows.
L
L had suffered a stroke that had left her paralyzed down the left
side of the body in her early twenties. This had led to her becoming
depressed, attempting suicide and losing self-confidence. She had been
unable to secure employment and had no outside interests until her
community care worker (CCA) had suggested riding therapy to her. L was
initially reluctant due to fear as she had never ridden previously and
was conscious that her disability would be a factor. Nevertheless she
agreed to join the group and very quickly spoke of the enjoyment and
benefit she received from the therapy.
One morning the researcher was
assisting L, who was mucking out a
stable one handed. L explained how it was a brilliant way to exercise as
she could see the point to it. The fact that she could feel the
improvement in her muscle strength since starting riding gave her added
impetus. Previously she had given up on doing the exercises given to her
by her physiotherapist as, "I couldn’t be bothered, couldn’t get
motivated or see the point".
"I can see the reason now and enjoy being with the horses so make myself
do it".
L also spoke of her difficulty in attending every week. At first she
said she attended because it was suggested by her key worker and she
was, "feeling really low and it was something to do".
She said that she had been very isolated with no networks, job or
outside interests and no confidence.
On one occasion she explained that, "today I really didn’t feel like
coming, felt horrible and tired this morning, but then when I got here
Muffin put his ears forward and nuzzled me, made me feel better".
The sense of achievement was a factor in L managing to motivate herself
to return, "I felt terrified at first, but felt a sense of achievement
after the first session; it was a challenge to overcome the fear".
The case notes recorded by the researcher
each session show L progress as follows;
16/11/2000
L has side-walkers, appears quite nervous, not willing to attempt to
ride independently.
7/12/2000
L managed to drive herself
to the stables in her new, adapted, car despite only having it a few
days and this being the first time out on her own. She said she was
really nervous about undertaking the journey but had missed the sessions
so much the previous few weeks because of no transport that she just had
to make herself do it.
18/1/2001
After not having attended
since before Christmas, notice huge improvement in all riders’ abilities
and confidence. L
trotting independently bareback!
One of the questions asked in the
interviews was in the form of a scaling question asking the riders
whether they had noticed any change in the following areas since joining
the group. This was undertaken halfway through the study. The categories
were; physical changes, confidence/social skills and
emotional/psychological.
L described her confidence at 5 on a scale of 1-10 compared to 1 when
she started the riding therapy.
She provides an example of how
an increase in self-confidence and esteem can result in positive life
changes being achieved. When L started with the group she explained that
her confidence was at rock bottom due to her stroke and the
discrimination she had faced due to the disability this had caused. She
had previously tried a course but it had been too difficult and,
"knocked my confidence and then I got isolated and took an overdose".
She said that previous friends had dropped her following her stroke and
a receptionist job that she had applied for had stated she was,
"unemployable" due to her disability.
After a few months with the group she enquired about
volunteering at the stables. As there was a vacancy for admin duties she
was offered the position and began working there once a week.
L added, "My one friend said that my confidence has grown loads and I’ve
come out of myself more".
Summing up the experience of the riding therapy she said,
"It has given me the confidence to try new things because now I am
trying out a new challenge that I never thought I could do".
S
S had a long history of depression that had resulted in her being
unable to undertake normal independent living skills such as shopping or
socializing.
Despite S having the most
regular attendance of the group she nevertheless spoke of her
considerable difficulties in attending due to, "getting it together in
the morning".
This was due to a combination of psychological and physical problems and
the medication she was taking. She explained she had suffered a nervous
breakdown and depression, together with low self-esteem, and experienced
difficulties sleeping. This left her tearful, achy and lethargic.
However she said that;
"Thursday is the best day of the week as I have always wanted to ride
but never had the money or opportunity before”.
Explaining that previous to the riding therapy she had had enormous
difficulty in doing day to day activities such as shopping, S described
that, "going into local shops, I would be all shaky, stutter and feel I
had to explain myself".
S would wait for her son to come home from school to go to the shops as
he acted, "like my little shield". However now she says that she has the
confidence to go into shops and even café’s, which she could never go
into by herself previously, even to meet a friend, "there was no café I
would go into by myself".
Wearing her riding clothes helps her achieve these things as she says
that,
"after going riding I feel confident enough to go into shops all dirty
and in my riding clothes as I feel myself like that".
S talked of how the group has," made me feel more confident in both
riding and meeting new people".
She elaborated to explain how learning a new skill had increased her
confidence;
"you are taught everything about the horse here not just sitting on it
which has increased my confidence generally. I can ask a question now
without feeling stupid".
"Ming is the horse that has helped to build
my confidence. I enjoy Ming because he's quite difficult so when he does
do something (right), it’s a real feeling of achievement."
"When I get to the stables and
see Ming it makes me happy, I stop worrying about anything else, I
forget about everything else, the whole experience lifts me. I just
concentrate on the horses/riding and nothing else".
The physical activity involved with working with horses appears to be a
factor in motivation, S saying that, "mucking out makes you feel good
afterwards because you’ve built up a sweat."
In the scaling question S rated her confidence at 9 as compared to 2 at
the beginning. She also gave the same rating to the
psychological/emotional benefits she felt she had gained from the riding
therapy.
SH
SH joined the group with a
history of depression, overdose attempts and hospitalization. She also
experienced psychotic episodes. Because SH had ridden previously and
owned her own horse in the past she was very keen to ride and be around
horses again. She explained her motivation for joining the group as
being, "Feeling of being able to do something that I used to do, after
so many years".
SH talks of the, "thrilling feeling of getting over the fear" and how
when jumping at a later date, it made her, "feel free". She added that
she felt that the horses could tell how people feel and what mood they
were in and would respond accordingly; “If I was depressed, he (the
horse) would just plod and let me get on with it. If I was in a better
mood, he would be more racy.”
Getting motivated to attend the sessions was sometimes difficult,
and SH spoke of the anti-psychotic medication she was prescribed making
her "feel drowsy and like a zombie".
However, she says that;
"When I have felt really depressed I have really had to force myself get
to the [RT group], but when I have got there it has blown it all away.
It is something to look forward to; every day was the same before. I was
wishing the days away - wanting it to be over".
SH adds;
"My concentration is better now, having to listen to instructions and be
aware of what the horse is doing and thinking - you have to be in the
moment".
Another element that was important to SH was the atmosphere at the
stables and the attitudes of the staff and volunteers. She explains this
as,
"[the] staff are straightforward, you know where you are with them,
they’re not ‘slimy’ nice".
However, she says that, "if I had to choose one [people or animals], it
would be animals. They’re not judgmental".
In the scaling question SH rated her confidence at 8, on a scale of 1
10, in comparison to 5 at the start of the study.
J
J did not want to discuss her mental health problems, which was
respected and the researcher did not pursue. However, she did divulge
that she found group situations and social interaction difficult. Her
actions supported this by, initially, being unwilling to join in the
group at coffee breaks and on the yard, preferring to stand a distance
away. She could not manage to use the taxi that brought S each week,
which meant she was reliant on her CCA for transport. By the end of the study, J had begun to socialize with the other
riders in the group and was managing to share the taxi and attend
weekly.
Case notes read;
29/3/2001
J arrived late with CCA due to difficulty in getting motivated.
Still cannot manage to share taxi with S but says she enjoys it when
actually gets to the stables. Wouldn't initiate conversation at first,
head down, looking at floor, avoiding eye contact. During coffee break
stood away from group in corner, avoiding being near people.
However when riding her posture much more upright, she appeared more
confident, started to initiate conversation and even laughed at one
point when her horse nearly broke into trot. Asking questions on how to
do rising trot and said she would really like to have a go at grooming
Jim (her horse) next week.
3/5/2001
J now attended for 3 sessions in a row and managing to share taxis
with S this week and the previous session. Where previously she lacked
the confidence to ask questions, waiting for me or the instructors to
approach her, this week she asked me to assist her in grooming Jim and
afterwards commented that she had really enjoyed this activity as, "You
can get closer to the horse when you groom them".
Her explanation for her motivation to keep attending despite her
difficulties was both her love of horses, despite her fear of them, and
the challenge this posed for her.
J explained that she had actually approached her CCA about whether she
could go riding as she had the, "feeling that I have an 'inner' horse".
When asked to expand on this she explained that she often experienced,
"Many dreams of horses, and galloping uncontrollably on a white horse".
J went on to add that it was important for her to try something that
was a challenge because,
"I have a problem with commitment, I am trying to use the riding to keep
coming and stick at something. I feel better after I've ridden, that
I've actually done it".
She added that, "They (the horses) love you unconditionally, they are
dependable and sensitive".
J had been drawn towards a nervous horse, Fern, who had previously been
badly treated. She said this was because she had felt "a connection”
with this horse. Interestingly, the instructor at the stables mentioned,
"If Fern had been a person she would have been just like J".
Rector, on her riding therapy programme in the USA encourages clients to
choose their own horses, as she believes that this can be an important
part of the therapeutic process. She notes that patients are
"consistently drawn towards horses whose characteristics resemble their
own personal treatment issues and diagnosis", (Rector, 1994). She goes
on to add that because horses don’t judge feelings and emotions, thought
or behaviour but do react to them in a straightforward manner, they
offer a honest and non-judgmental reflection back to the individual of
their own behaviour and, therefore, their feelings. This is a
fundamental part of the therapeutic process, as the programme director
believes that, "often emotionally disturbed people have no idea of how
it is they really feel" (Rector 1994).
V
V was another rider who did not wish to discuss her mental health
problems in depth, however she did speak of her depression and how she
had problems with group situations and social skills. She could not
accept praise and appeared to have low self-esteem. Her actions
supported this, the case notes reading;
16/11/2000
S and V standing outside
yard having cigarette. Not joining in group.
23/11/2000
V, K, S all withdrawn, un-communicative, at first.
As the case study progresses the case notes read;
30/11/2000
V, withdrawn at first, wouldn't join others on yard, stayed
outside gate. By end [of riding] initiating conversation. However
wouldn’t accept that she had tacked up Bertie independently when I
commented how well she had done, insisting that because a volunteer had
been nearby and given her some verbal assistance that she hadn't really
done it herself..
7/12/2000
V and S already arrived at stables and grooming their horses before
researcher arrived! V, especially, more outgoing, confident, initiating
conversation.
8/3/2001
V, riding dramatically improved, managing rising trot and much more
in control, appeared much more confident both on and off the horse. Both
her and S very pleased with themselves, breathless but beaming with the
sense of achievement.
V talked of her problems of being overweight and of finding the
motivation to exercise difficult.
However one week she explained that riding Ming instead of her usual
horse gave her motivation to improve and she had enjoyed the exercise.
"I enjoyed riding Ming because he’s more stubborn and it’s a challenge.
Also you have to really use your legs and it makes you feel good
afterwards".
K
K was a diagnosed schizophrenic, which she spoke about quite openly.
She explained she sometimes experienced hallucinations. Due to the
medication she was prescribed she suffered from shaking and explained it
sometimes made her "walk funny" and get very tired. At first she found
it difficult to concentrate in a group riding situation but could manage
with one to one instruction. As K had ridden prior to her illness she
quickly regained her riding skills but explained that she suffered from
a lack of confidence.
23/11/2000
V, K, S at first all
withdrawn, un-communicative.
30/11/2000
K very unresponsive, withdrawn on yard. Finds it difficult to ask
for assistance when stuck.
7/12/2000
K pleased to be trying a different horse and said had been looking
forward to coming all week. Had problems tacking up due to her shaking
but at end of riding session, managed to untack successfully.
18/1/2001
Instructor gave K a younger, more difficult horse to ride this week.
K pleased with this and looked very proud to have been considered
competent enough to ride this horse.
8/3/2001
K explained the reason that she had
missed the previous few sessions was because her back had been bad and
her physiotherapist had advised her not to attend. However she said, " I
couldn’t stay away from riding any longer, I was really missing it". She
went on to add that she had missed the rest of the group as well.
15/3/2001
Group very well gelled, asking each other how they are, pleased to see
each other. L, K and S arranging to socialize outside of the sessions.
K freely asking questions during a session on different feeds.
When asked for her feedback on the sessions, K replied, “it helps your
confidence to try something new and succeed", and also how, "its nice to
get out and have some fresh air-it makes you feel better".
DISCUSSION AND SUMARY
It has emerged over the course of the research that the strongest
element of the riding therapy has been the increase in confidence felt
by the riders. This has been brought about by a combination of factors.
Firstly, the medium of the horse as the motivating factor has encouraged
the riders to attempt, and stick at, a new experience. Secondly, the
environment has been instrumental, being perceived as safe and
non-judgemental, an important factor for the riders. Lastly, the
opportunity to acquire a new skill and see and feel a visible
improvement in their ability has led to transference of the confidence
gained into other social situations
Whilst the group studied did not include the psychotherapeutic aspect of
the therapy in the curriculum in a structured manner, the staff being
qualified riding instructors as opposed to psychotherapists, it has been
shown by riding programmes in America how this can be an additional
valuable aspect of riding therapy, and contribute to a growth in
self-awareness (Bertoti 1988; Rector 1994; McCormick and McCormick,
1997)
A number of psychological theories are relevant to riding therapy,
including those of Maslow (1970) and his hierarchy of needs table, and
Seligman’s learned helplessness theory (Seligman 1975).
Maslow believed that people need to have certain ‘needs’ met before full
potential or ‘self-actualisation’ can be reached. Two of these needs
especially relevant to the case study are, ‘Belonginess and Love Needs’
- to affiliate with others, be accepted and belong in your society or
culture and ‘Esteem Needs’- to achieve, be competent and gain approval
and recognition. The case study illustrates this with many of the riders
explaining that the fact that horses relate in a non-judgemental way and
that the environment was a reflection of this was an important part of
the experience for them.
Obviously the sense of achievement gained from learning to ride, control
a horse and how to relate to it as well as mastering new, physically
demanding, stable management skills, meet the ‘Esteem Needs’.
The motivation
to change is a fundamental part of any therapeutic process. It has been
suggested that “motivation is a concept which has been used by both
psychologists and educationalists to explain differences among learners
into the amount of effort they put into learning” (Entwistle 1985). Many
people who face discrimination, such as the person suffering mental
illness, become unmotivated and frustrated because they have become
disillusioned at not being able to fulfill the ‘normal’ behaviour
required of them by society, (Carson, Butcher and Coleman, 1988; Wilson
and Kneisel, 1992).
Seligman’s
theory of ‘learned helplessness’ is relevant in this instance, where the
individual becomes depressed and unmotivated when they learn that their
actions do not generally produce any useful results, (Seligman 1975).
Having a lack of control and power over one’s life as do people who face
discrimination and lack of opportunity, can therefore lead to ‘learned
helplessness’. Riding therapy can be a useful tool to employ to address
this, Barber stating that, “The response should be environmental
enrichment, by giving people experience of situations in which they are
in control and achieve successful results”, (Barber cited in Payne
1997).
Jung,
a former disciple of Freud, believed in the importance of animal
symbolism in dreams. He suggested that there are universal symbols and
patterns, (the collective consciousness). Certain animals are included
in these, including the horse, which are stored genetically within the
nervous system and hold the key to the individual's fulfilment.
According to Jung the psyche contains many of these unconscious
archetypes, which need to be explored and brought into the conscious in
order to reach self-actualization, (Jaffe 1980). Wilson (1984) refers
to this as biophilia, the innate link between humans and animals. The
psychologist Levison takes this theory further, proposing that because
animals have played such an important role in humankind’s evolution they
are integral to our psychological well-being (Serpell 2000).
Perhaps aspects of these theories were what J was experiencing in her
dreams of galloping wild horses.
The case study illustrated that riding therapy can be an effective
therapeutic medium to employ for people with mental health problems.
Whilst the research had huge limitations in terms of size, absence of
control group and the difficulties inherent in measuring psychological
outcomes, the fact that the riders themselves perceived their confidence
to have increased so dramatically can be argued to be evidence enough of
its success. That this rise in confidence had led to transferable
skills, such as L undertaking volunteer work and S being able to go into
shops alone, makes it a valuable tool for social workers and mental
health practitioners to employ.
It is suggested that riding therapy
can be suitable as an intervention for a far wider selection of social
work service users than the case study group alone. A case study of the
effectiveness of riding therapy on reducing disciplinary reports within
the adult judicial system being provided by Cushing and Williams (1995).
Youth offending is an area in which
riding therapy could be employed to great effect as it is with young
people that horses also appear to serve as an effective motivational
medium, as Rector (1994) and Nelson (1987) observe. Their programmes, in
addition, provide examples of the preventative aspect of the therapy in
its ability to increase self-awareness, self–esteem and confidence and
responsibility in young people.
A large draw back to riding therapy
is the considerable cost involved in running a riding therapy
establishment. However these do not appear as huge if they are weighed
against the costs involved in incarcerating a young offender in prison
or institutional care. Similarly, the 'revolving door' syndrome of
people with mental illness being constantly re-admitted into psychiatric
care has proved to be ineffective for large numbers of people. Riding
therapy provides an alternative to this scenario by utilizing the
non-judgmental and mirroring capacity of the horse as therapist to reach
into the psyche of the traumatized, alienated individual and offer them
a way back into society.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to the riders and staff
of the riding therapy sessions for allowing me to conduct this study and
giving up their time. Also thanks to my tutors at Exeter University,
Andy Taylor and Dierdrie Ford, for their advice and encouragement. Last
but not least, I would like to thank Helen Cottington for introducing me
to the group and initiating the project in the first place.
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The
researcher, Hannah Burgon, can be contacted at
hannahburgon@hotmail.com .
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